Psychophysiological Aspects of Stress Essay

Stress seems to be an unpleasant, but essential part of human life. Adverse events happen in life, and hardly anyone is an exception. However, the same negative life events may result in different outcomes depending on the individual who faces them. To paraphrase the common words, â€Å"what doesn’t kill you (just) makes you stronger†. The question of what inner resources help one cope with stressful â€Å"lemons† in one’s life, and perhaps, â€Å"make lemonade† out of them has long attracted attention of philosophers, writers, moviemakers, and at some point every person who has experienced negative life events. It is not surprising that the issue of individual differences in response to stress has been extensively explored in psychology. Individual differences may vary from situational resources, such as social support, to personal resources, such as certain personality traits (e. g. , hardiness, explanatory style, optimism, self-esteem, psychological control, etc. ) These psychosocial resources strongly influence both psychological and physiological outcomes of stress. The Alameda County Study showed that those people who had more ties to their community and social network lived longer (Berkman & Syme, 1979). Receiving social support helped women with ovarian cancer cope with their illness better (Costanzo et al. , 2005), whereas social isolation strongly increased the likelihood of stroke recurrence in patients with stroke (Boden-Albala, 2005). Lack of social support strongly predicted elevated levels of anxiety and depressed mood (Godin, 2004). Personality resources may also help people cope with stressful life events. For example, optimistic explanatory style was associated with significantly fewer physical complaints in college students (Carver & Scheier, 1999), whereas pessimistic explanatory style increased symptoms of depression (Bennett & Vanderbilt, 2002). Perceived control also appears to mitigate the effects of stressful life events (Frazier, 2004). Finally, almost 3 decades of research on the moderating effect of hardiness has linked this personality resource to physical and mental health (Maddi, 1999). Specifically, hardiness is associated with fewer symptoms of depression (Oman, 2003) and burnout (Cilliers, 2003), and it physical strain as well (Beasley, 2003). The list of personal and situational resources moderating the effect of adverse life events is far from being complete; in fact, it may be quite extensive. Given the strong moderating effect of psychosocial resources on mental and physical health established by the previous research, the questions that arise, such as how exactly do these resources affect health? Are there any physiological differences in the way those individuals who have more psychosocial resources, and those individuals who have fewer resources, react to stress? The present study aims to answer this question with regard to the effect of personality hardiness on physical outcomes of stress. Research has shown that hardy individuals appear to thrive on stressful life events (Maddi, 1999). Hardy individuals are committed to their work and family, they perceive control over their life circumstances, and they perceive stressful life events as an opportunity for growth and development, rather than a threat (Maddi, 2002). Hardiness is an important moderator of stress response, yet little research has investigated the differences in the physiology of stress responses in high hardy versus low-hardy individuals. Previous research found that increased physiological reactivity to stress (for example, in terms of blood pressure) is associated with detrimental health outcomes, such as hypertension. However, hardiness has been strongly linked to better health outcomes of stress (Beasley, 2003; Cilliers, 2003; Maddi, 2002, Oman, 2003). Previous research has also shown that identical blood pressure increases can be produced by different hemodynamic mechanisms, with negative or neutral implications for health (Sherwood et al. , 1999). The goal of the present study is to clarify how hardiness takes its effect on health in terms of the psychophysiology of human stress responding. The Biopsychosocial Model of Challenge and Threat In this paper, the physiological response to stress is conceptualized within the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat paradigm developed by Blascovich, Mendes, Tomaka, and colleagues (Blascovich, Mendes, Tomaka, Salomon, & Seery, 2003; Seery, Blascovich, Weisbuch, & Vick, 2004). In a series of studies, Blascovich, Tomaka, and colleagues demonstrated that threat and challenge appraisals are associated with distinctive patterns of cardiovascular response during a goal-relevant, motivated-performance task (Blascovich et al. , 1999). In Obrist’s terms (1983), this type of task involves active coping. In order to evoke both challenge and threat reactivity, the task should be engaging and psychologically involving, such as taking a test, making a good impression, giving a speech, and engaging in athletic competition (Seery et al. , 2004). Challenge appraisals are associated with positive affectivity, greater engagement in the situation, and are mediated by the myocardial response; whereas threat appraisals are associated with negative affectivity and blood pressure responses that are mediated by the vascular resistance. Challenge and threat are distinguished by changes in total peripheral resistance (TPR; the index of net constriction of the blood vessels) and cardiac output (CO; the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute). In relative terms, greater CO and lesser TPR reflect greater challenge/lesser threat response profile. According to biopsychosocial model, threat reactivity is associated with detrimental health outcomes of stress. Blascovich and colleagues tied Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) transactional model of stress and coping to physiological response to stress in terms of myocardial and vascular hemodynamic profiles. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), when the individual confronts new or changing environment, he/she tries to determine the meaning of the event (â€Å"primary appraisal†). Primary appraisal is concerned with whether the event is likely to be neutral, positive, or negative in its consequences. Negative events may be appraised in terms of future damage potentially produced by the event (â€Å"threat†), or as damage that has already been made by the event (â€Å"harm†), or in terms of one’s potential to overcome the event and perhaps even benefit from it (â€Å"challenge†). Secondary appraisal is concerned with the evaluation of whether one’s resources are sufficient to meet the threat, harm, or challenge. The balance between the primary and secondary appraisal determines one’s experience of stress. Blascovich and colleagues (Blascovich et al. , 2003) conceptualized threat/challenge essentially in terms of the ratio between the primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. In addition, in their approach, primary appraisal involves estimations of danger, uncertainty, and required effort. Danger, uncertainty, and effort define how demanding the situation is. The subjective experience of stress then depends on the ratio between the demand and one’s coping resources. If the demand is high, and the resources are low, the individual feels threat. If the demand is high, but at the same time the coping resources are sufficient to meet it, the individual feels challenge. Threat appraisal implies the aversive experience in that the individual anticipates damage from the situation, and presumably experiences negative affectivity, such as fear, anxiety and anger. In contrast, challenge appraisals are considered less aversive, with a primary focus on the potential for growth or gain that can come from the situation, although damage is also possible. Challenge appraisals are therefore theoretically associated with increased motivation and positive affectivity, such eagerness, excitement, and exhilaration. To reiterate, it is the threat appraisal that primarily accounts for perceived stress (Tomaka & Palacios-Esquivel, 1999). Blascovich and colleagues conceptualize threat and challenge as two opposite points on the single appraisal continuum. This is also different from Lazarus and Folkman’s conceptualization of threat and challenge as not mutually exclusive appraisals. Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) concept of appraisal has come under considerable criticism (Zajonc, 2000). Zajonc believes that cognitive appraisal and affective experience are â€Å"distinct, conceptually separable processes† (Zajonc, 2000, p. 31). The appraisal theories of emotion were considered too â€Å"cognitive†, conscious, and slow, as appraisal often occurs unconsciously and quickly. The proponents of appraisal theories respond that appraisal does not need to be conscious as it often occurs unconsciously, automatically, and very quickly, and appraisal may be accompanied by subcortical as well as cortical processing (Ellsworth, Scherer, & Forgas, 2003). That’s why, according to appraisal theorists, although stressful experience is defined as a combination of appraisals, it is not experienced as such (Ellsworth, Scherer, & Forgas, 2003). However, this makes appraisal difficult to study. Self-reports might not adequately reflect one’s appraisal, and because appraisal is assessed a posteriori, a wide variety of confounding variables may interfere with accurate measurement. Within the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat, appraisal is conceptualized as a process involving both unconscious and conscious processes; and therefore the best way to investigate appraisal would be to manipulate the task in the experiment, whereas subjective evaluations are considered much less reliable (Blascovich et al. , 2003). The biopsychosocial model is based on Dienstbier’s (1989) research. Dienstbier (1989) argued that there are two axes of stress response, sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA), both of which serve to mobilize energy reserves. However, SAM activation involves the release of catecholamines, including epinephrine and norepinephrine, which have a half-life in the body for only a few minutes, whereas HPA activation involves the release of cortisol, which has a half-life in the body for approximately 90 minutes. Thus, SAM allows for rapid energy mobilization, whereas HPA involves long-term mobilization of energy resources. Dienstbier’s (1989) argued that fast large SAM response to the acute stressors coupled with low HPA response is indicative of the organism’s physiological toughness and adaptive pattern of stress responding. According to Frankenhauser (1983), SAM activation is associated with greater coping effort, whereas HPA activation reflects greater negative affect. Both Frankenhauser (1983) and Dienstbier (1989) believed that the stressors involving joint activation of the SAM and HPA have the most detrimental effect on health. For example, individuals with hypertension were found to have both higher diastolic blood pressure reactivity and higher cortisol reactivity to stress (Nyklicek, Bosch, & Amerongen, 2005). Thus, joint SAM axis and HPA axis activation is observed in hypertensive individuals, i. e. , the group that has traditionally been found to be especially vulnerable to the effect of stressful life events. Blascovich et al. (2003) argued that challenge reflects primarily SAM axis of stress response, whereas threat reflects joint activation of the SAM and HPA axes of stress response. Blascovich and colleagues did not empirically test this assumption. This conceptualization of the treat and challenge profiles as reflections of sympathetic/HP A reactivity has come under considerable criticism in the recent literature. Wright and Kirby (2003) argued that this conceptualization may not reflect the true activation of the stress response system, and it needs to be tested empirically before one can rely on the assumption. The Effect of Individual Differences on Hemodynamic Response to Stress Individual differences in hardiness may have impact on one’s response to stress. To understand the influence of individual differences on the physiological response to stress, it is important to establish if the hemodynamic profile is a characteristic if the individual, or a function of the situation. Would a specific situation elicit the same hemodynamic response in all individuals? Or, is the hemodynamic response a stable individual trait? To answer this question, one should consider the research on the consistency of hemodynamic profiles across diverse tasks and over time. Previous research suggested that hemodynamic responses are to some extent situation-specific. The myocardial hemodynamic profile is evoked by the tasks that require active coping (Obrist, 1983) or fight or flight response; whereas vascular hemodynamic response is evoked by the tasks that require passive endurance and offer little control, such as cold stressor tasks. Blascovich and colleagues (Mendes, Blascovich, Lickel, et al. , 2002) used a speech delivery task to validate their theory. The participants were instructed to deliver a speech in the presence of either a same-group partner (challenge) or an out-group partner (threat). As expected, the TPR response was higher in the threat condition, whereas CO response was higher in the challenge condition. Maier, Waldstein, and Synowski (2003) used a computerized mental arithmetic task to find that challenge appraisal was related to greater positive affect and task engagement, whereas threat appraisal was related to greater negative affect and perceived stress. Prkachin, Mills, and Husted (2001) found that anger-inducing interview led to the vascular response, whereas mental arithmetic led to the myocardial response. Hartley, Ginsburg, and Heffner (1999) showed their participants a previously recorded videotape, in which they were disclosing personal information about themselves. The participants in the active condition were allowed to mark the segments of the tape, which they wanted to re-shoot before the tape was â€Å"evaluated by the reviewer†; whereas the participants in the passive condition were not allowed to mark the segments of the tape. Both conditions produced similar elevation in blood pressure; however, in the active condition, blood pressure elevation was elicited through myocardial mechanism, whereas in the passive condition, blood pressure elevation was elicited through the vascular mechanism. Gregg, James, Matyas, and Thornsteinsson (1999) found that mental arithmetic task elicited myocardial response, and cold pressor task elicited vascular response. Quigley, Barrett, and Weinstein (2002) did a within-subject analysis of cardiovascular reactivity to the different tasks, and found that greater CO was associated with greater challenge implied by the task (serial subtraction); however, there was no difference in TPR. Although Quigley and colleagues (2002) investigated the differences in physiological reactions produced by different tasks within the individuals, they did not investigate the consistency of these reactions within the individuals themselves, i. e. , how stable was the hemodynamic response within a given person across different tasks. Previous research has established that at least some parameters of cardiovascular reactivity may be stable characteristic, such as blood pressure reactivity. In other words, the individuals with higher blood pressure reactivity would consistently exhibit this response pattern in different circumstances. Sherwood et al. (1999) argued that hemodynamic profiles also represent a trait, as individuals have a tendency to exhibit a certain type of response across diverse tasks. However, this is a very â€Å"relative† tendency as it is determined by comparison with other individuals. So instead of always responding in a fixed way to all situations, a particular individual would just show more/less myocardial/vascular response comparing to other individuals in the context of a given task. In addition, Sherwood et al. (1999) argued that the individual’s tendency to exhibit a particular hemodynamic response profile is stable over time. For example, middle-aged Type A men exhibited significant correlations over a 3-month interval on a competitive reaction time task (Sherwood et al. , 1999). Kamarck et al. (2000) identified myocardial and vascular responders in the initial testing session, and this tendency was stable after a 4-week interval. Thus, there is evidence that hemodynamic profiles may be relatively stable across tasks and across time, i. e. , some individuals may respond in a relatively more myocardial/vascular way to diverse tasks, and this response may tend to be stable over time. What are the factors that may influence one’s hemodynamic response pattern? Previous research indicated that ethnicity may be one of these factors as African American individuals typically have a tendency to respond in a vascular way; in addition, there are significant gender differences (Allen, Stoney, Owens, & Matthews, 1999). However, there is little research on the personality factors that might affect hemodynamic pattern of responding. Cooper and Waldstein (2004) found that hostility was associated with greater TPR. Cacioppo and colleagues (2002) and Hawkey, Burleson, Berntson, & Cacioppo (2003) found that in young adults, loneliness was associated with higher TPR and lower CO, whereas non-lonely young adults had higher CO. Tomaka and colleagues (Tomaka et al. , 1999) found that approach motivation was associated with higher CO. However, these two studies looked at the state variables, such as loneliness and approach/avoidance motivation. It might be of interest to investigate the effect of stable personality traits as well. Previous research has documented the health-enhancing and health compromising effect of a number of personality variables, such as optimism (Carver & Scheier, 2001), Type A, and hardiness (Maddi, 1999) in terms of blood pressure and future risk for hypertension and CVD development. Yet, there has been little research investigating the effect of personality variables on the hemodynamic mechanisms underlying BP reactivity. Blascovich and colleagues (2003) emphasized the need for research clarifying the effect of social and emotional factors on the patterns of physiological response associated with challenge and threat appraisals. HPA Reactivity in Response to Stress Situations Evoking HPA Activation HPA response is elicited by the situations implying significant threat to the individual, such as physical survival (Sapolsky et al. , 2000) and threat to one’s important goals (Carver & Scheier, 1999). Cortisol helps the organism manage short-term metabolic demands of the situation. Although cortisol response may be elicited by a variety of situations, it is the threat to one’s important goals that triggers this response. Dickerson and Kemeny (2004) conducted meta-analysis of 208 studies on cortisol reactivity. The effect size found in these studies varied from small (d=. 20) to fairly large (d=. 87) depending on the experimental task. The largest effect sizes were produced by tasks that involved uncontrollable threat to social self, such as public speaking, coupled with harassment, false feedback, perceived inability to complete the task, etc. (d = . 92). Thus, it appears that cortisol response to an acute laboratory stressor is most likely to be elicited by the uncontrollable social-evaluative tasks. These two features of uncontrollability and social evaluation have consistently been found to produce intense distress. Uncontrollability is one of the classical characteristics defining stressful situations. In a classical study, Glass and Singer (1973) showed that stress is associated with the situations involving uncontrollability and unpredictability. Social evaluation and self-presentation are common features of everyday life. In the experience of daily stress, interpersonal events play a central role, self-presentation is concerned with (1) one’s need to define one’s social self, and make one’s social self as close as possible to one’s ideal self; and (2) one’s need to please the audience (Baumeister, 1982). This need to make a favorable impression is very important for most people, and when they doubt that they succeed, people experience social anxiety marked by feelings of apprehension, self-consciousness, and distress. Social anxiety may be a dominant factor in modern life. Thus, an uncontrollable social-evaluative threat may produce intense experience of distress marked by significant cortisol elevation. The Relationship between Joint SAM and HPA axes Activation and Personality The research investigating joint HPA and SAM axes activation in response to stress indicated that a single manipulation of the experimental task may elicit different patterns of SAM and HP A response. For example, Earle, Linden, and Weinberg (1999) compared participants performing mental arithmetic task in front of an audience in harassment and no-harassment conditions. Harassment consisted of the scripted statements by same-gender experimenters. Both conditions produced sympathetic activation in terms of DBP (in men) and HR (in women), but it was the harassment condition only that produced significant cortisol elevation. The research on the relationship between joint HPA and SAM axes activation and personality dispositions during a single exposure to stress found a link between personality and SAM reactivity, but not between personality and HPA reactivity. This finding pertains to the studies involving single exposure to an acute laboratory stressor. For example, Taylor et al. (2003) found that high self-enhancers had lower sympathetic responses (SBP and HR), but authors did not find a significant difference in eortisol response to stress between the high and low self-enhancers. Gregg et al. (1999) did not find any meaningful correlations between eortisol and hemodynamic measures in the participants performing mental arithmetic task and cold pressor task. Schommer, Kudielka, Hellhammer, and Kirschbaum (1999) found no relationship between eortisol response to an acute laboratory stressor and the personality traits of Extraversion, Neuroticism, or Psychoticism measured with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised. However, the research evidence with regard to the effect of exposure to repeated psychosocial stress did find a significant effect of personality on cortisol reactivity. Pruessner, Gaab, Hellhammer, Lintz, Schumer, and Kirschbaum (1999) exposed the participants to psychosocial stressor (public speaking) over a period of 5 consecutive days. Although during the first day, there was no significant relationship between personality factors (locus of control) and cortisol response, there was a significant relationship between locus of control and cortisol response later, from day two to day five. Pruessner et al. (1999) found that the combination of data obtained over the five consecutive days was necessary to detect the significant effect of personality traits, such as locus of control, on cortisol reactivity. In another study, Kirschbaum, Prussner, Stone, Federenko, Gaab, Lintz, Schommer, and Hellhammer (1999) investigated cortisol response to the repeated psychosocial stressor consisting of public speaking and mental arithmetic in a group of healthy young adults. The participants had been exposed to the stressor for 5 days. Kirschbaum and colleagues (1999) observed quick habituation of the HPA axis in some participants. These â€Å"low cortisol responders† exhibited large cortisol responses during the first day, and then this response subsided during the 5-day interval. However, in some participants, the HPA axis did not habituate to the stressor. These â€Å"high responders† kept producing large cortisol reactions throughout the entire 5-day period. The tendency to exhibit persistent high cortisol responses to repeated psychological stress was strongly associated with a number of personality variables, such as having lower self-esteem, viewing oneself as less attractive than others, and being more often in depressed mood, and lower extraversion. Cortisol high responders also reported significantly more symptoms of distress than cortisol low responders. In another study, Schommer, Hellhammer, and Kirschbaum (2003) also found a group of individuals with persistent cortisol response to psychosocial stress. In addition, high cortisol responders had significantly higher plasma ACTH levels. This study also looked at the sympathetic activation. The results suggested that SAM axis does not habituate to the repeated stress, as rapidly as the HPA axis does, because the levels of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) were consistently elevated in both high and low cortisol responders. Pruessner et al. (1999) suggested that during the first exposure to stress, the effect of personality on HPA reactivity is masked by the novelty of the situation. Novelty, which is one of the classical features defining a stressful situation, has a profound effect on HPA reactivity masking moderating effect of personality. However, during the second and subsequent exposures to stress, the novelty is lessened, so the influence of personality dispositions may be investigated. Discussion and Conclusion According to the biopsychosocial model, challenge and threat response are evoked only by the situations involving â€Å"motivated performance† (Seery at al. , 2004). Engagement in the task is essential in eliciting both challenge and threat reactivity. The task should be â€Å"goal-relevant† (e. g. , it should be important for the participant). Hardiness, especially its commitment and control components, can be significantly correlated with conscientiousness, and both dispositions are associated with greater TPR increase in response to stress and little or no change in CO. Higher conscientiousness, commitment to the task and need to control the situation might lead to the greater engagement in the task and higher expectations for the quality of one’s performance. This might have resulted in greater negative affectivity about the task and about one’s performance. In contrast, the low-hardy participants can be probably disengaged, and, therefore, showed less reactivity. Due to the greater commitment to the task, high-hardy individuals showed a response profile that exaggerated the response typically evoked by the task. Thus, in a socially evaluative situation known to evoke a strong threat hemodynamic response profile, greater hardiness may be associated with greater threat response. This tendency may be due to the greater commitment to the task and greater need to control the situation. To fully understand the effect of hardiness on psychophysiology of human stress responding, the HPA reactivity should be evaluated (Seery et al. , 2004). Hardiness can be associated with a tendency towards exaggerated cardiovascular response to the psychosocial stressor. The general pattern of reactivity evoked by the TSST is consistent with the threat profile. It would be interesting to investigate reactivity to the stressor that evokes primarily challenge hemodynamic response profile. According to the biopsychosocial model, challenge and threat are defined by the ratio of the demand posed by the situation and perceived resources to cope with it (Blascovich et al. , 2003). Thus, in the challenging situation, the individuals would perceive more resources to cope with the demand. Due to the greater commitment to the task and greater conscientiousness, high-hardy individuals may potentially show greater challenge reactivity. However, it may also be possible that high-hardy individuals will still have greater concerns about their performance, which may be associated with greater distress reflected in a threat response profile. To sum up, it appears that in some individuals, the HPA axis cannot adapt quickly to the repeated stressful situation, so these individuals keep responding with high cortisol elevations consistently. There is link between personality dispositions (locus of control, self-esteem, and extraversion) and this persistent high cortisol response. In conclusion, the research suggests that although a single exposure to stress may provide information about the relationship between personality and SAM reactivity, the HPA activation will not be tapped. In order to obtain a true picture of joint SAM and HPA activation, it is necessary to consider the effect of repeated exposure to psychosocial stress. References Allen, M. T. , Stoney, C. M. , Owens, J. F. , & Matthews, K. A. (1993). Hemodynamic adjustments to laboratory stress: the influence of gender and personality. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55 (6), 505-17. Baumeister, R. F. (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91(1), 3-26 Beasley, M. , Thompson, T. , Davidson, J. (2003) Resilience in response to life stress: The effects of coping style and cognitive hardiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 34 (1), 77-95. Berkman, L. F. & Syme, S. L. (1979). Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: a nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109 (2), 186-204. Blascovich, J. , Mendes, W. B. , Hunter, S. B. & Salomon, K. (1999). Social ‘Facilitation’ as Challenge and Threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 68-77. Blascovich, J. , Mendes, W. B. , Tomaka, J. , Salomon, K. , & Seery, M. (2003). The robust nature of biopsychosocial model challenge and threat: A reply to Wright and Kirby. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7 (3), 234-243. Boden-Albala, B, Litwak, E, Elkind, M. S. , Rundek, T. , & Sacco, R. L. (2005) Social isolation and outcomes post stroke. Neurology, 64(11), 1888-92. Cacioppo, J. T. , Hawkley, L. C. , Crawford, L. E. , Ernst, J. M. , Burleson, M. H. , Kowalewski, R. B. , Malarkey, W. B. , Van Cauter, E. , & Berntson, G. G. (2002). Loneliness and health: potential mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64 (3), 407-17. Carver, C. S. , & Scheier, M. F. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and self-regulation. In E. C. Chang (Ed. ), Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 31-51). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Cooper, D. C. , & Waldstein, S. R. (2004). Hostility differentially predicts cardiovascular risk factors in African American and White young adults. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57 (5), 491-9. Costanzo ES, Lutgendorf SK, Sood AK, Anderson B, Sorosky J, Lubaroff DM. Psychosocial factors and interleukin-6 among women with advanced ovarian cancer. Cancer 2005;104:305-13.

Differences Between American and British English

While there are certainly many more varieties of English, American English and British English are the two varieties that are taught in most ESL/EFL programs. Generally, it is agreed that no one version is correct, but there are certainly preferences in use. The three major differences between American and British English are: Pronunciation - differences in both vowel and consonants, as well as stress and intonationVocabulary - differences in nouns and verbs, especially phrasal verb usage and the names of specific tools or itemsSpelling - differences are generally found in certain prefix and suffix forms The most important rule of thumb is to try to be consistent in your usage. If you decide that you want to use American English, then be consistent in your spelling (i.e. The color of the orange is also its flavour - color is American spelling and flavour is British). Of course, this is not always easy or possible. The following guide is meant to point out the principal differences between these two varieties of English. Minor Grammar Differences There are very few grammar differences between American and British English. Certainly, the words we choose might be different at times. However, generally speaking, we follow the same grammar rules. With that said, there are a few differences.   Use of the Present Perfect In British English, the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example: Ive lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In American English, the following is also possible:I lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In British English, the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet. British English: Ive just had lunch.Ive already seen that film.Have you finished your homework yet? American English: I just had lunch OR Ive just had lunch.Ive already seen that film OR I already saw that film.Have you finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet? Two Forms to Express Possession There are two forms to express possession in English: have or have got. Do you have a car?Have you got a car?He hasnt got any friends.He doesnt have any friends.She has a beautiful new home.Shes got a beautiful new home. While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English), have got (have you got, he hasnt got, etc.) is generally the preferred form in British English, while most speakers of American English employ the have (do you have, he doesnt have etc.) The Verb Get The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. American English: Hes gotten much better at playing tennis. British English: Hes got much better at playing tennis. Have got is used predominately in British English to indicate  have in the sense of possession. Strangely, this form is also used in the United States with the British participle got, rather than gotten. Americans will also use have got to in the sense of have to for responsibilities. Ive got to work tomorrow.Ive got three friends in Dallas. Vocabulary The largest  differences between British and American English lie in the choice of vocabulary. Some words mean different things in the two varieties, for example: Mean: American English - angry, bad humored, British English - not generous, tight-fisted. American English: Dont be so mean to your sister! British English: Shes so mean she wont even pay for a cup of tea. There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a difference in usage, your dictionary will note the different meanings in its definition of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in the other. One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles. American English - hood / British English - bonnetAmerican English - trunk / British English - bootAmerican English - truck / British English - lorry For a more complete list of the vocabulary differences between British and American English, use this British vs. American English vocabulary tool. Spelling Here are some general differences between British and American spellings: Examples of words that end in -or in American English and -our in British English: color/colour, humor/humour, flavor/flavourExamples of words that end in -ize in American English and -ise in British English: recognize/recognise, patronize/patronise The best way to make sure that you are being consistent in your spelling is to utilize the spell check tool associated with your word processor and select the type of English (American or British) youd like to use.

How Business Strategy and Choices should be made - 700 Words

How Business Strategy and Choices should be made Business policies refer to the guidelines which are developed by an organization in order to govern its actions/operations. They help in defining the limits within which decisions can be made in accordance with Management Study Guide, (n.d). On the other hand, business strategy refers to a long term plan of action/s designed to achieve a certain goal or set of goals or even objectives (Rapid Business Intelligent Success, RBIS (n.d). The policies and strategies should be made in line with guiding principles. In business sphere, a business policy should be specific or definite. Making policy choices that are uncertain would imply that implementation would be difficult. Additionally, a†¦show more content†¦The choices are to be made in such a manner that the business is put on a competitive edge. Moreover, strategic choices are made according to the capabilities of the business to build and maintain in the competitive environment. Lastly, it is of great importance to consider the available management systems which are readily available in operation in order to build and maintain the key capabilities. We have several examples to illustrate the choice of policies and strategies. For instance, Corning Incorporated case study by Rebecca, Henderson and Cate (2009) has its strategic choices in innovation because it has a strong team of scientists in the research and development section. This is a strength to them and hence a capability. The policy of constant innovation makes the employees be regarded as career employees for long service. We also look at the case study of DDD (Anju, Grate and Jaime, 2009). The strategic choice to expand globally was due to its highly trained staff. However, its social policy and financial constraints impeded it from recruiting the best staff. Lastly, Compsis at crossroads (Jonathan and Paul, 2009) had strategic choices of expanding its ETC business to more powerful, flexible and user friendly SICAT due to the financial constraints it was facing. In a nutshell, strategic choices and policies are very important driving forces in a business enterprise. A business policy to beShow MoreRelatedRyanair Strategy1069 Words   |  5 Pagesworld. A corporate’s strategy mainly based on three steps: Identify the strategic position, make strategic choice and make strategic actions. Each step includes different aspects. When we identify the strategic position, we should analyses both internal and external environment, consider the purpose, capability and culture. After we identified the strategic position, we should make strategic choices, and when we are making strategic choices, we should consider from the business level, corporate levelRead MorePanera Bread Company1498 Words   |  6 Pagesformulate and direct their strategic management activities. Sophisticated planners, such as General Electric, Procter Gamble, and IBM, have developed more detailed processes than less formal planners of similar size. Small businesses that r ely on the strategy formulation skills and limited time of an entrepreneur typically exhibit more basic planning concerns than those of larger firms in their industries. Understandably, firms with multiple products, markets, or technologies tend to use more complexRead MoreThe Walt Disney Company: the Entertainment King Essay1589 Words   |  7 PagesTheir corporate strategies (primarily under CEO Eisner) include three dimensions: horizontal and geographic expansion as well as vertical integration. 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All these choices and decisionsRead More8 Strategy Experience Intro601 Words   |  3 PagesStrategic Management The Strategy Experience Lecture 8 Mark Anderson WRSX GLOBAL ADVERTISING MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS The Strategy Experience †¢ You will act as a main Board Director of the WRSX Group, a (fictional) global advertising and marketing communications company. †¢ Your responsibility will be to make long-term, strategic decisions in order to manage the growth and prosperity of this large, multi-national organisation. †¢ Performance will be measured in both financial and nonfinancialRead MoreSummary Chapter 1 Johnson, Whittington Scholes993 Words   |  4 PagesJohnson, Scholes amp; Whittington – Exploring Strategy, text and cases Chapter 1 – Introducing Strategy Defining strategy - Strategy is about the key issues for the future of organizations, or in other words, the long term direction for an organization. The description of strategy in the book has two advantages: 1. It can include deliberate, logical strategy and incremental, emergent patterns of strategy; 2. It can lay the focus on differences and competition as well as on recognizing theRead MoreRhetorical Analysis1841 Words   |  7 Pagesanalysis assignment is to see how an author tries to present his work to a certain group of people. There is present certain meaning in all the texts and it is up to the author to communicate it in the required way. The purpose of this assignment was to review the article and see how the author made use of different strategies. It appears that a major aim that the author had was trying to convince the readers about revenue based financing. The author made use of several strategies as they will be discussedRead MorePlanning Matrix1055 Words   |  5 Pagesbasis for making strategy-formulation decisions. The matching techniques just discussed reveal feasible alternative strategies. 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The development and usage of the word suggests that it is composed of stratos (army) and agein (to lead). In a management context, the word ‘strategy’ has now replaced the more traditional term – ‘long-term planning’ – to denote a specific pattern of decisions

Human Resource Management ( Hrm ) - 985 Words

Human Resource Management (HRM) is the term used to define official structures developed for the administration of individuals within an organization. The accountabilities of a human resource manager tumble into three major areas: Staffing, Employee compensation benefits Defining/designing work. In actual fact, the purpose of HRM is to make the most of the throughput of an organization by augmenting the efficacy of its workforces. This dictate is dubious to change in any vital way, in spite of the ever-increasing stride of change in the business world. Every organization can be smart and/or Healthy. Healthy organization can be smart but very challenging to accomplish visa-versa. Smart organizations are task-oriented and†¦show more content†¦Another essential feature for HR is to have a customer-centric approach that can add significance to a company by empowering it to distinguish itself from opponents who do not offer the same experience to the customers and their clients. Like salespersons, organizations pursue to draw and maintain clienteles — employee customers — often in an enormously competitive environment. Endowment can permit or restrain competitive attainment, and as the battle for talent build up, added meaning will be engaged on procuring and retaining critical individuals. As in marketing, the notion is to craft an employee value proposition that best satisfies the needs of the workers and is associated with the strategic goals of the organization. Similarly in HR seeking constant feedback from employees about their needs and desires may be the most genuine sign of administration attentiveness and apprehension. Whether it is marketing or now HR, appropriate and actionable data accelerates your enterprise and supports front-runners make better verdicts — decisions supported by data. Reliably heeding to employees and assessing their first choice will endorse employee satisfaction and help achieve increasing benefit expenditures, generating the conventional win-win bond for both employees’ and employers. What is Simulation? – Simulations are perception of realism. Often they purposefully highlight one part of reality at the outflow of other

The Bioethics Debate Free Essays

Kristi Ellis Mrs. Scheidt English 1301. 174 11 October 2012 Paper #2 – The Bioethics Debate In â€Å"Patenting Life,† by Michael Crichton, and â€Å"Bioethics and the Stem Cell Research Debate,† by Robyn S. We will write a custom essay sample on The Bioethics Debate or any similar topic only for you Order Now Shapiro, they discuss gene patenting, medicine, stem cell research, and the laws of bioethics. According to Crichton and Shapiro, humans are all born with genes, stem cells, and organs that are part of our natural world, yet when the law tries to put limits on these rights it becomes unethical. Crichton and Shapiro both agree about the controversial issues surrounding science and medicine. They both point out the unethical issues, the innovation in medicine, and the impact on science and medicine in relation to the law. In both essays Crichton and Shapiro list many immoralities that arise out of bioethical issues. For instance, Crichton refers to an example of the Canavan disease in which the process to find a cure was halted due to gene patenting. It was a prime example of an issue that was unethical because the owner of the gene for the disease could choose whether or not to charge for a test and choose how much to charge for it, which blocks medical innovations. Crichton states, â€Å"There is no clearer indication that gene patents block innovation, inhibit research and put us all at risk† (432). Crichton goes on to say that genes are part of humans naturally and should not be privately owned (431). In comparison, Shapiro explains although embryonic stem cells give promise to the medical field, many ethical issues surround it such as the destruction of the embryo. Shapiro also writes that those who denounce embryonic stem cell research believe the embryo is already a human being with rights from conception, while others believe that human rights do not exist prior to birth (435). Additionally, medical advancement is critical for innovation in both essays. Crichton states that gene patenting prevents medical testing and slows medical advancement. Not only does it halt research, but it causes the costs of medical testing to rise because the owner can charge whatever he wants (431). He mentions doctors cannot get information on if a medication will or will not work on someone because the lack of quality tests. Crichton says â€Å"For years we’ve been promised the coming era of personalized medicine – medicine suited to our particular body makeup. Gene patents destroy that dream† (432). In contrast, Shapiro states that stem cells are important to the medical field because they can turn into a wide array of cell types that can help people with diseases such as diabetes, nervous system diseases, and Parkinson’s disease (434-35). In addition, he says stem cell research could provide important information on how human organs and tissues develop, which could lead to development of new medications (435). In both sources, the law plays a significant role in the unethical issues surrounding science and medicine. Crichton mentions how the United States Patent Office issued gene patents by mistake because of misinterpreted Supreme Court rulings. The issue of gene patents make it hard for people to donate their genes because most of the genes are privately owned (431). Crichton states that two congressman sponsored the genomic research and Accessibility Act, a bill that would ban patenting genes in nature (432). Shapiro denotes the growing importance of the law surrounding bioethical issues. He cites the United States Supreme Court cases of Roe v. Wade and Stenberg v. Carkart which dealt with a partial birth abortion law. Shapiro states, â€Å"In state courts, bioethical considerations inform judges’ balancing of patient healthcare confidentiality with a â€Å"duty to warn† of potentially dangerous patient behavior (433). The most significant law Shapiro cites is the Dickey Amendment which prohibits federal funding for embryo research (436). Shapiro mentions in addition to federal funding restrictions, many states have laws that limit embryonic stem cell research. Lastly, he cites the eligibility of federal patent protections significantly, the Thomson Patents (437). In conclusion, both Crichton and Shapiro can conclude the topics of gene patenting and embryonic stem cell research are unethical in some way. Although gene patenting blocks innovation and embryonic stem cell research promotes it, they both have laws that limit the impact on the world of science and medicine. According to Shapiro, â€Å"As these issues have moved to the center of public debate, the law has assumed an increasingly important place in the discipline of bioethics† (433). Thus, when the law puts limits on human genetics it becomes unethical and immoral according to both essays in this bioethical debate. WORD COUNT: 740 Works Cited Crichton, Michael. â€Å"Patenting Life. † Perspectives on Contemporary Issues: Readings Across the Disciplines. 6th ed. Ed. Katherine Anne Ackley. Boston: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2012. 431-432. Print. Shapiro, S. Robyn. â€Å"Bioethics and the Stem Cell Research Debate. † Perspectives on Contemporary Issues: Readings Across the Disciplines. 6th ed. Ed. Katherine Anne Ackley. Boston: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2012. 433-438. Print. How to cite The Bioethics Debate, Essay examples

Difficulties faced By Spinelli Coffee-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the difficulties faced by Spinelli Coffee. Answer: Introduction Coffee is regarded as one of the important traded commodities and is considered as one of the most vouched beverages around the world for its unique flavours along with sensory characteristics[1]. The following report is based on the Spinelli Coffee, one of the esteemed names in the contemporary coffee market[2]. The report starts via highlighting the limitations associated with the services of the company followed by a detailed highlight of companys history and environmental sustainable resources employed by them. Limitations of the Company The limitations of the company are reflected in regards to the services procured in terms of the corporate delivery. According to the official website of Spinelli Coffee, they require at least 3 to 4 hours excluding the day of order to process the bulk corporate order. Moreover, the orders of the food items are subject to the availability for of the stock[3]. These delays in delivery prevent Spinelli Coffee to compete with its immediate competitor in the contemporary market and that is Starbuck. Moreover, Spinelli Coffee is also at times criticised for its high level of price band. However, keeping their quality into consideration the nature of roosted process undertaken by them in order to maintain their original flavour of the coffee, their high price rate is justified. Background of the Company Spinelli Coffee is a San Francisco based company whose mission is to buy, sell and roast finest quality coffee. It was conceived in 1983 by Christopher Calkins and Arnold Spinelli and is famous among their market contemporaries for vending coffee to more than 20 different cafes, restaurants, hotels and food market. Its first outlet in Singapore opened in the year 1996 and this is followed via rigorous strategic expansion in different business district including the downtown shopping malls. Approaches the company adopted to be environmentally sustainable Caffeine is naturally occurring alkaloids which acts as mild stimulant and often are physiologically active in human. It is one of the widely used psychoactive drugs and is a mild stimulant effect to the central nervous system[4]. The percentage of caffeine present in coffee differs by brand. However, in average share of caffeine in coffee as traded by few of the common brands lies in between 30 to 40 mg/bag of coffee. Solvents like methyl chloride, chloroform, acetone, ethyl acetate and ethanol are some of the popularly used solvent extraction methods that are reduce to reduce the caffeine content of the coffee[5]. The solvent extraction method is carried out via adding a sudden percentage of solvent in the coffee. Caffeine is comparatively more soluble in solvent than that of coffee and hence seperates out of the coffee via getting dissolved inside the solvent. The solvent containing caffeine is either evaporates or left behind to get mixed with the environmental water bodies. This kind of process of solvent extraction of caffeine is considered to be hazardous for the atmosphere because their presence in the product as well their discharge into environment can serious threat towards the health of mankind. In order to reduce the harmful impact of the solvent extraction method over the environment and on the coffee consumers, the Spinelli Coffee employs Swiss Water process for the caffeine extraction. It only uses water for the process of decaffeination of the coffee and thereby making the decaffeinated coffee 100% chemical free[6]. According to Vuong et al. (2014), Roach, water is environment friendly and thus regarded as safe solvent for decaffeination. It is also cost-effective and more accessible relative to other organic solvents. Hence it can be regarded as a solvent for choice for the isolation and separation of the caffeine. Furthermore, the advantage of Swiss water process in decaffeination is, it helps to generate pure decaffeinated coffee beans that is free from harmful chemicals while keeping the original flavour intact[7] References Preedy, Victor R., ed.Coffee in health and disease prevention. Academic Press, 2014. Shinde, Ms RR, and N. H. Shinde. "Extraction of Caffeine from Coffee and preparation of Anacin drug."International Journal of Engineering10, no. 1: 2017. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/swiss-water-decaffeination. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/corporate-delivery. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/about-us. Vuong, Quan V., and Paul D. Roach. "Caffeine in green tea: its removal and isolation."Separation Purification Reviews43, no. 2 (2014): 155-174 Vuong, Quan V., and Paul D. Roach. "Caffeine in green tea: its removal and isolation."Separation Purification Reviews43, no. 2 (2014): 155-174. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/about-us. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/corporate-delivery. Preedy, Victor R., ed.Coffee in health and disease prevention. Academic Press, 2014. Shinde, Ms RR, and N. H. Shinde. "Extraction of Caffeine from Coffee and preparation of Anacin drug."International Journal of Engineering10, no. 1: 2017. Spinelli Coffee Company. 2017.Spinelli Coffee Company. https://www.spinellicoffee.com/swiss-water-decaffeination. Vuong, Quan V., and Paul D. Roach. "Caffeine in green tea: its removal and isolation."Separation Purification Reviews43, no. 2 (2014): 155-174.

Lucid Dreaming Essays (1051 words) - Dream, Lucid Dreams

Lucid Dreaming Ever have the feeling where you don't really know if you are dreaming or awake? That feeling of conscious awaking in you dreams where you are able to control yourself, your movements, and your wishes. This can be defined as lucid dreams. Roughly one-third of our lives we spend on sleeping, and significant amount of this time is spent on dreaming. So why not enjoy our dreams by controlling them, instead of letting dreams controlling us. The term "lucid", came from Frederik Van Eeden in 1913, he used it to define the sense of mental clarity. The definition of lucid dreaming is nothing more than becoming aware that you are dreaming, while you are dreaming. There are different levels of control among people where you are able to control your lucid dreams. A low-level lucid dream is one where you know you're dreaming, but that's it. In experiencing a higher level of lucid dream, you have the power to control, influence, and react to various events and contents of the dream. For those who have mastered the state of lucidity, the benefits are enormous. It gives a person a chance to experience adventures unsurpassed in everyday life, like that vacation on the moon. You can literally do anything you wish; the only limits are the limits bound my your imagination. Having the ability to tap to our unconscious, and subconscious mind, it also gives us a valuable insight into our daily lives. "By learning to make the best of the worst situation imaginable, you can overcome nightmare's and fears in the waking world" Gackenback/Bosveld 1989) There are several techniques for inducing a lucid dream, and the Lucidity Institute, Inc., founded in 1987 by lucid dreaming researcher Dr. Stephen LaBerge to support research on lucid dreams and to help people learn to use them to enhance their lives. This has created special devices to assist people in achieving lucid dreams. Inducing lucid dreams takes concentration, effort, and time. Some people have been able to have lucid dreams on the very first night of attempting to do so, however it may take others up to weeks. This varies greatly from person to person. It seems, as people who remember their dreams with greater ease tend to find it easier to have lucid dreams when compared to those who remember only a few every month (LaBerge). Many people seem to confront with the chance to learn of lucid dreaming asking themselves, "Why would I want to lucid dream?" The most common use of lucid dream is for those who have achieved the skill for pure fun and adventure. Unlike reality the laws of physics or even the rules of government do not restrict you. There is no need to be afraid of social consequences, because they are non-existent. You can fly, glide, touch, taste, whatever your heart desires. The limits are limitless. "Entertainment is not the only use of lucid dreaming, because of the strong link between the mind and body during dreams, there is evidence to suggest that dreams can be used for mental and physical healing" (Ziesing). Many have failed trying to induce lucid dreams, yet often people start having a lucid dream after giving up. So do not push to have one, trying too hard would only end up in frustration. After one has accomplished with the task of inducing lucid dreams to the max, reality testing is the assurance, and a constant question. Whether or not what one is experiencing is indeed reality, several times a day one may ask him/her self, "Am I dreaming?" The answer to that question might surprise the inducer of lucid dreams in time (Van de Castle 42). Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams (MILD) is a technique developed by Dr. Stephen Laberge, and is used by him to induce lucid dreams at will during his study. The steps to lucid dreaming via MILD are to set you mind to awaken from dreams and recall them as completely as possible. After one has recalled it, concentrating single-mindedly on its intention to remember to realize that he/she was only dreaming. One may say, "Next time I'm dreaming, I want to remember I'm dreaming." By trying to really put this really in your mind and